The Commonwealth of Nations - African History

The Commonwealth of Nations - African History What is the Commonwealth of Nations? The Commonwealth of Nations, or more commonly just the Commonwealth, is an association of sovereign states consisting of the United Kingdom, some of its former colonies, and a few special cases. The Commonwealth nations maintain close economic ties, sporting associations and complementary institutions. When was the Commonwealth of Nations Formed? In the early twentieth century, the government of Britain was taking a hard look at its relationship with the rest of the British Empire, and particularly with those colonies populated by Europeans – the dominions. The dominions had reached a high level of self-government, and the people there were calling for the creation of sovereign states. Even amongst the Crown Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates, nationalism (and the call for independence) was on the rise. The British Commonwealth of Nations was first noted in the Statute of Westminster on 3 December 1931, which recognized that several of the United Kingdoms self-governing dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa) were autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. What was new under the 1931 Statute of Westminster was that these dominions would now be free to control their own foreign affairs – they were already in control of domestic affairs – and to have their own diplomatic identity. Which African Countries are Members of the Commonwealth of Nations? There are 19 African states who are currently members of the Commonwealth of Nations. See this Chronological List of African Members of the Commonwealth of Nations, or Alphabetical List of African Members of the Commonwealth of Nations for details. Is it Only ex-British Empire Countries in Africa Who Have Joined the Commonwealth of Nations? No, Cameroon (which had only partially been in the British Empire following World War I) and Mozambique joined in 1995. Mozambique was admitted as a special case (ie could not set a precedent) following democratic elections in the country in 1994. All its neighbors were members and it was felt that Mozambiques support against white-minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia should be compensated. On the 28th November 2009 Rwanda also joined the Commonwealth, continuing the special case conditions under which Mozambique had joined. What Kind of Membership Exists in the Commonwealth of Nations? The majority of African countries who had been part of the British Empire gained independence within the Commonwealth as Commonwealth Realms. As such, Queen Elizabeth II was automatically the head of state, represented within the country by a Governor-General. Most converted to Commonwealth Republics within a couple of years. (Mauritius took the longest to convert – 24 years from 1968 to 1992). Lesotho and Swaziland gained independence as Commonwealth Kingdoms, with their own constitutional monarchy as head of state – Queen Elizabeth II was recognized only as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth. Zambia (1964), Botswana (1966), Seychelles (1976), Zimbabwe (1980), and Namibia (1990) became independent as Commonwealth Republics. Cameroon and Mozambique were already republics when they joined the Commonwealth in 1995. Did African Countries Always Join the Commonwealth of Nations? All those African countries still part of the British Empire when the Statute of Westminster was proclaimed in 1931 joined the Commonwealth except for British Somaliland (which joined with Italian Somaliland five days after gaining independence in 1960 to form Somalia), and Anglo-British Sudan (which became a republic in 1956). Egypt, which had been part of the Empire until 1922, has never shown an interest in becoming a member. Do Countries Maintain Membership of the Commonwealth of Nations? No. In 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth when it declared itself a republic. South Africa rejoined in 1994. Zimbabwe was suspended on 19 March 2002 and decided to leave the Commonwealth on 8 December 2003. What Does the Commonwealth of Nations do for its Members? The Commonwealth is best known for the Commonwealth games which are held once every four years (two years after Olympic games). The Commonwealth also promotes human rights, expects members to meet a set of fundamental democratic principles (curiously enough spelt out in the Harare Commonwealth declaration of 1991, given Zimbabwes subsequent departure form the association), to provide education opportunities, and maintain trade links. Despite its age, the Commonwealth of Nations has survived without needing a written constitution. It depends upon a series of declarations, made at Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.

Solons Reforms and the Rise of Democracy in Athens

Solons Reforms and the Rise of Democracy in Athens First coming to prominence (c. 600 B.C.) for his patriotic exhortations when Athens was fighting a war against Megara for possession of Salamis, Solon was elected  eponymous archon  in 594/3 B.C. and perhaps, again, about 20 years later. Solon faced the daunting task of improving the condition of: debt-ridden farmerslaborers forced into bondage over debt, andthe middle classes who were excluded from government, while not alienating the increasingly wealthy landowners and aristocracy. Because of his reforming compromises and other legislation, posterity refers to him as Solon the lawgiver.   Such power I gave the people as might do, Abridged not what they had, now lavished new. Those that were great in wealth and high in place, My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. Before them both I held my shield of might, And let not either touch the others right.- Plutarchs Life of Solon The Great Divide Between Rich and Poor in Athens In the 8th century B.C., rich farmers began exporting their goods: olive oil and wine. Such cash crops required an expensive initial investment. The poorer farmer was more limited in choice of crop, but he still could have continued to eke out a living, if only he had either rotated his crops or let his fields lie fallow. Slavery When land was mortgaged, hektemoroi (stone markers) were placed on the land to show the amount of debt. During the 7th century, these markers proliferated. The poorer wheat farmers lost their land. Laborers were free men who paid out 1/6th of all they produced. In the years of poor harvests, this wasnt enough to survive. To feed themselves and their families, laborers put up their bodies as collateral to borrow from their employers. Exorbitant interest plus living on less than 5/6ths of what was produced made it impossible to repay loans. Free men were being sold into slavery. At the point at which a tyrant or revolt seemed likely, the Athenians appointed Solon to mediate. Relief in the Form of Solon Solon, a lyric poet, and the first Athenian literary figure whose name we know, came from an aristocratic family which traced its ancestry back 10 generations to Hercules, according to Plutarch. Aristocratic beginnings did not prevent him from fearing that someone of his class would try to become tyrant. In his reform measures, he pleased neither the revolutionaries who wanted the land redistributed nor the landowners who wanted to keep all their property intact. Instead, he instituted the seisachtheia by which he canceled all pledges where a mans freedom had been given as guarantee, freed all debtors from bondage, made it illegal to enslave debtors, and put a limit on the amount of land an individual could own. Plutarch records Solons own words about his actions: The mortgage-stones that covered her, by me Removed, the land that was a slave is free;that some who had been seized for their debts he had brought back from other countries, where so far their lot to roam, They had forgot the language of their home;and some he had set at liberty, Who here in shameful servitude were held. More on the Laws of Solon Solons laws do not appear to have been systematic, but provided regulations in the areas of politics, religion, public and private life (including marriage, burial, and the use of springs and wells), civil and criminal life, commerce (including a prohibition on export of all Attic produce except olive oil, although Solon encouraged the export of artisans work), agriculture, sumptuary regulation and discipline. Sickinger estimates there were between 16 and 21 axones that may have contained 36,000 characters total (minimum). These legal records may have been placed in the Boulouterion, Stoa Basileios, and the Acropolis. Although these places would have made them accessible to the public, how many people were literate is not known.   Sources: J.B. Bury. A History of GreecePlutarchs Life of SolonRichard Hookers (wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ATHENS.HTM)  Ancient Greece: AthensJohn Porters SolonUniversity of Keeles Classics Departments  Athenian Democracy  (www.keele.ac.uk/depts/cl/iahcla~7.htm - accessed 01/02/2000)History of Greece Vol II, by George Grote (1872).